Time to go atomic on space station

THE International Space Station will soon host the most accurate clock ever sent into space. It will allow for better synchronisation of clocks on Earth and also probe exotic physics.

The experiment, called Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space (ACES), will be built by EADS Astrium and is scheduled to fly to the space station in 2014, the European Space Agency announced last week. It will keep track of time by measuring the frequency of microwaves absorbed by cooled caesium atoms.

On Earth, the accuracy of caesium clocks is limited by gravity. The atoms are cooled by using lasers to slow them down, then tossed upwards into a cavity where measurements are made to determine the precise frequency of microwave radiation that they absorb and emit. In microgravity, the atoms linger in the cavity, allowing for longer and more accurate measurements, explains John Prestage of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, who is not involved in the project.

ACES should be at least 100 times as accurate as the clocks on GPS satellites, adds Prestage.

Using the space-station clock as a common point of reference, ground-based atomic clocks could be more accurately compared with one another. What's more, variations between atomic clocks could reveal if a physical constant called alpha – which governs the electromagnetic force – is not constant after all.

Has the question of life beyond earth been answered finally by Gliese 581?

The cosmos never ceases to amaze us with its sheer size and splendor. The star studded sky above us and the vast unexplored eternity that lay beyond us have always captured both human mind and human heart. While the glitz and shine of the stars and the spectacular celestial aura have drawn us towards them, it is impossible to deny that our space programs are barely at a stage of infancy, with 99.9% of the universe still left unexplored. It is this magic of finding something new each day, each moment, each time you point your telescope in to the sky that hold our imagination and ignites our senses. The universe around us is so kind that you can randomly look at any part of it and it still will give you a surprise or two. You can call that either our luck or our sheer ignorance.

But since ages, the question that has intrigued us the most is, ‘Are we alone in the universe?’ This one question has always baffled our thoughts, challenged our imagination and of course made Spielberg in to a movie making icon. But off late scientists are starting to believe more and more that the answer to that question is ‘No’. The discovery of Gliese 581 was one of the most exciting moments in extra-solar planetary researcher. The star is said to be having a planetary system and now researchers claim that they have found two planets that might be conducive to existence of life on them.

Astronomers have found an Earth-massed planet orbiting within the habitable zone of a distant star. This would mean that liquid water could be on its surface - and maybe even life! Any planet needs to be at a right distance from its own sun, so as to be able to maintain conditions that help the sustenance of life on it. If it is too close to the star, it looses the water on its surface due to excessive heat and if it is too far, it might be too cold to harbor life. Two separate teams of astronomers have found out in two different ways that the system of Gliese 581 has planets in the habitable zone. They did this by calculating and comparing the position of Earth and the planet on which they believe life could exist.

The first team lead by Franck Selsis calculated that the inner boundary of this habitable zone around Gliese 581 should be somewhere between 0.7 and 0.9 astronomical units and the outer zone should be between 1.7 and 2.4 AU. At least one planet orbiting Gliese 581 falls within this range. Now that is indeed exciting news. I always thought that we would find life beyond earth first on Titan- Saturn’s largest moon. But I still think the problem is that we look for life that is organic-similar to ourselves in nature. Why can’t life have evolved out of Platinum and gold somewhere else in the cosmos? Now that would be ‘Rich life’, if not intelligent.

Could Shaking Batteries Power Gadgets?

What if you could recharge batteries simply by shaking them? Japan's Brother Industries thinks its prototype rechargeable batteries could shake up the gadget market.

Brother showed off the prototype Vibration Energy Cell at techno Frontier 2010 this week in Tokyo, demonstrating it in a TV remote control, LED flashlight, and a remote lamp switch.

The generator comes in AA and AAA formats (either in a single case or as a battery attached to a generator, seen above) and produces up to 3.2 volts with a coil, magnet, and condenser.

The juice is enough to power a remote control. By leaving the battery in a remote control and shaking it, the cell will be recharged. It's unclear how long (or vigorously) you'd have to shake it, but I doubt it would require shaking your fist at the TV for an entire episode of your most hated show.

Brother says it developed the Vibration Energy Cell to reduce waste from disposable and rechargeable batteries. But if it gives me another incentive not to hurl my remote at the tube, I'd go for it.

Four Decades Later, Recovering Lunar Images

Between 1966 and 1967, the U.S. launched a series of five unmanned Lunar Orbiter missions that photographed and mapped 99 percent of the lunar surface. The spacecraft, equipped with a dual-lens Kodak camera, captured both a 610mm high-resolution image and a 80mm wide-angle low-resolution image and placed the two exposures on a single roll of 70mm film.

In orbit, the onboard system developed the film, scanned the images into a series of strips, and the analog data was then transmitted to NASA back on Earth where it was written to magnetic tape, stored away, and nearly forgotten.

Around 2005, space entrepreneur Dennis Wingo and Keith Cowing of NASA Watch learned of prior attempts at restoring the images. With a renewed interest from NASA in moon exploration and the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter set to go to the moon in 2009, Wingo and Cowing became more and more motivated to work toward restoring the tapes.

Eventually, in mid-2008, with volunteer help and funding from NASA and other outside grants, the Lunar Orbiter Image Recovery Project (LOIRP) moved the 1,478 tape cartridges and the drives into an abandoned McDonald's which is (still) slated for demolition at NASA Ames Research Center in Mountain View, Calif.

Geo-Neutrinos: Discovery of Subatomic Particles Could Answer Deep Questions in Geology

The finding, made by the Borexino Collaboration at the Gran Sasso National Laboratory of the Italian Institute of Nuclear Physics, was reported in a paper published in the April issue of Physics Letters B. The work builds on earlier evidence of so-called "geo-neutrinos" obtained during a Japanese experiment in 2005.

"This is an important result," said Frank Calaprice, a professor of physics at Princeton and one of the study's authors. "It shows that geo-neutrinos have been detected and firmly establishes a new tool to study the interior of Earth."

Neutrinos, which are chargeless, inert, fundamental particles, are emitted by the sun and cosmic rays entering Earth's atmosphere. Geo-neutrinos are antineutrinos -- neutrinos' antimatter counterparts. Geo-neutrinos originate from the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium and potassium in Earth's crust and mantle -- the thick layer extending to 1,800 miles below the surface.

At laboratories like Gran Sasso, researchers are using instruments that act as geo-neutrino "telescopes," looking into Earth's interior by detecting these curious particles.

Scientists expect that geo-neutrinos will aid them in better identifying what constitutes matter deep within Earth. "It's a very significant discovery and holds much promise for better understanding the composition of Earth and how Earth operates," said Thomas Duffy, a professor of geosciences at Princeton, who was not involved in the research.

Earth scientists would like to know more about the crucial role that decaying elements such as uranium and thorium play in heating up Earth and causing convection in its mantle -- the slow, steady flow of hot rock in the interior carrying heat from great depths to Earth's surface. Convection, in turn, drives plate tectonics and all the accompanying dynamics of geology seen from the surface -- continents moving, seafloor spreading, volcanoes erupting and earthquakes occurring. No one knows whether radioactive decay dominates the heating action or is just a player among many factors.

The origin of the power produced within Earth is one of the fundamental questions of geology, according to Calaprice. The definite detection of geo-neutrinos by the Borexino experiment confirms that radioactivity contributes a significant fraction -- possibly most -- of the power, he said.

The Borexino experiment actually was designed to detect low-energy solar neutrinos, not geo-neutrinos. "As we were building the experiment, we realized we had the capability of detecting particles that were coming at us from the radioactivity deep inside Earth," said Cristiano Galbiati, an assistant professor of physics and another of the 13 Princeton collaborators among the 88 scientists involved in the research.

The Borexino project is located nearly a mile below the surface of the Gran Sasso mountain about 60 miles outside of Rome -- an ideal spot for studying neutrinos because the rock shields the detector from other types of radiation and particles that would overwhelm the sensing device. Much of the Borexino experiment is a process of eliminating the "noise" of background radiation.

Neutrinos are notoriously difficult to detect because they usually pass straight through matter, rarely interacting with it. The detector is composed of a nylon sphere containing 1,000 tons of a hydrocarbon liquid. An array of ultrasensitive photodetectors is aimed at the sphere that is encased within a stainless steel sphere. All of this is surrounded by 2,400 tons of highly purified water held within another steel sphere measuring 59 feet.

Solar neutrinos produce one type of signal when they come into contact with the detector, and geo-neutrinos produce another type. Because there are a thousand times fewer geo-neutrinos striking the detector, there are only a few events that occur per year. The paper describes two years of results, running up to December 2009. The experiment is continuing.

The importance of geo-neutrinos was pointed out by scientists in the 1960s, and a seminal study by Lawrence Krauss, Sheldon Glashow and David Schramm in 1994 laid the foundation for the field. In 2005, a Japan-U.S. collaboration called KamLAND operating an experiment at a mine in Japan reported an excess of low-energy "antineutrinos."

Scientists can envision a day when a series of geo-neutrino-detecting facilities, located at strategic spots around the globe, can sense particles to get a detailed understanding of Earth's interior and the source of its internal heat. This data could provide enough information to predict the occurrence of events such as volcano eruptions and earthquakes.

Super-Hot Planet With Unique Comet-Like Tail Discovered

"Since 2003 scientists have theorized the lost mass is being pushed back into a tail, and they have even calculated what it looks like," said astronomer Jeffrey Linsky of the University of Colorado in Boulder, leader of the COS study. "We think we have the best observational evidence to support that theory. We have measured gas coming off the planet at specific speeds, some coming toward Earth. The most likely interpretation is that we have measured the velocity of material in a tail."

The planet, located 153 light-years from Earth, weighs slightly less than Jupiter but orbits 100 times closer to its star than the Jovian giant. The roasted planet zips around its star in a short 3.5 days. In contrast, our solar system's fastest planet, Mercury, orbits the Sun in 88 days. The extrasolar planet is one of the most intensely scrutinized, because it is the first of the few known alien worlds that can be seen passing in front of, or transiting, its star. Linsky and his team used COS to analyze the planet's atmosphere during transiting events. During a transit, astronomers study the structure and chemical makeup of a planet's atmosphere by sampling the starlight that passes through it. The dip in starlight because of the planet's passage, excluding the atmosphere, is very small, only about 1.5 percent. When the atmosphere is added, the dip jumps to 8 percent, indicating a bloated atmosphere.

COS detected the heavy elements carbon and silicon in the planet's super-hot, 2,000-degree-Fahrenheit atmosphere. This detection revealed the parent star is heating the entire atmosphere, dredging up the heavier elements and allowing them to escape the planet.

The COS data also showed the material leaving the planet was not all traveling at the same speed. "We found gas escaping at high velocities, with a large amount of this gas flowing toward us at 22,000 miles per hour," Linsky said. "This large gas flow is likely gas swept up by the stellar wind to form the comet-like tail trailing the planet."

Hubble's newest spectrograph has the ability to probe a planet's chemistry at ultraviolet wavelengths not accessible to ground-based telescopes. COS is proving to be an important instrument for probing the atmospheres of "hot Jupiters" like HD 209458b.

Another Hubble instrument, the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS), observed the planet in 2003. The STIS data showed an active, evaporating atmosphere, and a comet-tail-like structure was suggested as a possibility. But STIS wasn't able to obtain the spectroscopic detail necessary to show a tail, or an Earthward-moving component of the gas, during transits. The tail was detected for the first time because of the unique combination of very high ultraviolet sensitivity and good spectral resolution provided by COS.

Although this extreme planet is being roasted by its star, it won't be destroyed anytime soon. "It will take about a trillion years for the planet to evaporate," Linsky said.

The results appeared in the July 10 issue of The Astrophysical Journal.

Men Are From Mars

Neuroscientists Find That Men And Women Respond Differently To Stress

There are many books and movies that highlight the psychological differences between men and women -- Men are From Mars, Women are From Venus, for example; but now, neurologists say they have brain images that prove male and female brains do work differently -- at least under stress.

Same species, different genders … And now, a new high-tech scientific study reveals the differences between men and women may really start at the top. Researchers at the University of Pennsylvania used a high-tech imaging method to scan the brains of 16 men and 16 women. The subjects were placed inside a functional magnetic resonance imaging machine, or fMRI.

"Using this state-of-the art-functional magnetic resonance imaging technique, we try to directly visualize what the human brain does during stress," Jiongjiong Wang, Ph.D., a research assistant professor of radiology and neurology at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, told Ivanhoe.

Researchers then purposely induced moderate performance stress by asking the men and women to count backward by 13, starting at 1,600. Researchers monitored the subject's heart rate. They also measured the blood flow to the brain and checked for cortisol, a stress hormone.

When the scans were completed, neuroscientists consistently found differences between the men's stressed-out brains and the women's. Men responded with increased blood flow to the right prefrontal cortex, responsible for "fight or flight." Women had increased blood flow to the limbic system, which is also associated with a more nurturing and friendly response.

Doctors say this information may someday lead to a screening process for mood disorders. "In the future, when physicians treat patients -- especially depression, PTSD -- they need to take this into account that really, gender matters," Dr. Wang explains.

Other experts caution that hormones, genetics and environmental factors may influence these results, bringing to light yet another difference between men and women. Neuroscientists say the changes in the brain during stress response also lasted longer in women.

WHAT IS fMRI? Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses radio waves and a strong magnetic field rather than X-rays to take clear and detailed pictures of internal organs and tissues. fMRI uses this technology to identify regions of the brain where blood vessels are expanding, chemical changes are taking place, or extra oxygen is being delivered.

These are indications that a particular part of the brain is processing information and giving commands to the body. As a patient performs a particular task, the metabolism will increase in the brain area responsible for that task, changing the signal in the MRI image. So by performing specific tasks that correspond to different functions, scientists can locate the part of the brain that governs that function.

FIGHT OR FLIGHT: Certain events act as "stressors," triggering the nervous system to produce hormones to respond to the perceived danger. Specifically, the adrenal glands produce more adrenaline and cortisol, releasing them into the bloodstream. This speeds up heart and breathing rates, and increases blood pressure and metabolism. These and other physical changes help us to react quickly and effectively under pressure.

This is known as the "stress response," or more commonly, as the "fight or flight response." But if even low levels of stress go on too long, it can be detrimental to one's health. The nervous system remains slightly activated and continues to pump out extra stress hormones over an extended period, leaving the person feeling depleted or overwhelmed, and weakening the body's immune system.

STRESS-REDUCING TIPS: There are several easy, practical things people can do to reduce the amount of stress in their lives. (1) Be realistic and don't try to be perfect, or expect others to be so. (2) Don't over-schedule; cut out an activity or two when you start to feel overwhelmed. (3) Get a good night's sleep. (4) Get regular exercise to manage stress -- just not excessive or compulsive exercise -- and follow a healthy diet. (5) Learn to relax by building time into your schedule for reading or a nice long bath.

Brain Size Associated With Longevity in Mammals

The brain size of some mammals is larger than expected for their body size. This is the case of large primates, such as chimpanzees and gorilla, and of whales, dolphins and elephants. Scientists have spent years investigating why sometimes nature favours the development of large brains given that they require much more time to reach functional maturity and use up so much energy. One of the classical explanations is the Cognitive Buffer Hypothesis (CBH). This hypothesis suggests that a larger brain provides more flexibility in behaviour when facing changes in the environment and makes learning easier, aspects which allow species to overcome ecological challenges successfully.

CREAF researchers César González-Lagos and Daniel Sol, together with Simon Reader (University McGill, Canada), offer new data supporting this hypothesis in an article published recently in Journal of Evolutionary Biology. Using statistical methods, the authors analysed data from 493 mammal species -- from rodents and bats to cetaceans, felines, ungulates and marsupials -- and have reached the conclusion that having a larger brain entails having a longer life, and this represents a new advantage.

In addition to generating more opportunities to adapt to changes and therefore improving survival, a larger brain size also permits animals to live longer and thus have more chances to reproduce, which is beneficial to each individual member. This is the compensation for a longer embryonic development needed to generate a larger brain. Species with larger brains have also shown to take longer in reaching sexual maturity, which is in part compensated by a longer reproductive life.

The study includes an extended taxonomic range in comparison to previous studies and takes into account phylogenetic relations between species analysed. Researchers analysed a series of other variables which could be related to higher longevity, such as metabolic rates -- the amount of energy expended while at rest -- diet or habitat, and concluded that none of these can be significantly associated with longevity. Connections are made however not only with a larger brain size, but also with a larger body size, given that large animals are known to live longer. Nevertheless, CREAF researchers confirm that the size of the brain affects lifespan regardless of the size of the body. Hyenas, for example, have a larger brain than giraffes in proportion to body size and on average live longer, although they are smaller than these herbivores.

The statistical model used by researchers also took into account whether age registers of the almost 500 species analysed were carried out with animals living in the wild or in captivity. The latter were shown to have more chances of living longer.

The authors of the study emphasise that the relation between a large brain and a longer life is not always one of cause and effect. "CBH points to this fact, that a larger encephalon favours a longer lifespan, but it is equally possible that a longer life favours the development of larger brains," researchers assure. Thus, it is possible that a longer life works in favour of a delay in reproductive cycles and this would in turn allow progenitors to invest more resources and time in caring for their offspring. This also leads to the formation of stable social groups whose members, according to the Social Intelligence Hypothesis (SIH), must deal with more cognitive demands than animals living alone, and this would be the reason for larger brains. "Our results," researchers add, "do not demonstrate which of the two options is correct, although we think that the two complement each other and go hand in hand."

Artificial lung "breathes" in rats: study

U.S. researchers have created a primitive artificial lung that rats used to breathe for several hours and said on Tuesday it may be a step in the development of new organs grown from a patient's own cells.

The finding, reported in the journal Nature Medicine, second in a month from researchers seeking ways to regenerate lungs from ordinary cells.

In the latest study, Harald Ott and colleagues at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School in Boston removed the cells from rat lungs to leave a scaffolding or matrix.

They soaked these in a bioreactor along with several types of human lung cells, creating pressures to simulate the pressure inside a body to make the lung workable and flexible.

The cells took up residence and grew into different tissue types seen in a lung, Ott's team reported.

When transplanted into rats, they worked for about six hours, although imperfectly.

The researchers said it may be possible to try the experiment with more immature stem cells, the body's master cells. These could include embryonic stem cells, which can mature into any cell type in the body, or induced pluripotent stem cells -- ordinary cells with genes added to make them behave like flexible stem cells.

The potential market is large and dozens of companies are launching into regenerative medicine, as are academic labs like those at Harvard.

"Nearly 25 million people live with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and approximately 120,000 patients die from end-stage lung disease annually in the United States alone," Ott's team wrote.

"Lung transplantation remains the only definitive treatment for end-stage lung disease. As with other organs, however, the supply of donor lungs is limited. In 2005, only one out of four patients waiting for a lung underwent transplantation," they added, citing the United Network of Organ Sharing.

Last month, a team at Yale University in Connecticut implanted engineered lung tissue into rats that helped the animals breathe for two hours.

Better Animal-Free Test for Chemicals That Can Cause Contact Dermatitis

Their study appears in ACS'Chemical Research in Toxicology, a monthly journal.

Itai Chipinda and his colleagues note the existence of public sentiment against the use of animals to determine whether ingredients in consumer soaps, shampoos and other consumer products, and workplace chemicals, may cause skin sensitization and contact dermatitis. Chemicals cause dermatitis by bonding to proteins in the skin, and then aggravating the immune system so that redness, irritation, itching, and other symptoms occur.

Existing chemical tests use substances like glutathione that mimic skin proteins and bond to allergy-causing ingredients. None, however, are suitable for use in detecting the critical early stages of skin sensitization, the scientists say.

Instead of glutathione, Chipinda and his team developed a test with nitrobenzenethiol as the skin protein surrogate. When used on 20 different chemicals known to cause skin irritation, the test produced positive results. It produced negative results when used to test substances that usually do not produce skin sensitization.

"This simple, rapid and inexpensive absorbance-based method has great potential for use as a preliminary screening tool for skin allergens," the report states.

Worldwide Hunt To Solve The Mystery Of Gamma-Ray Bursts

Gamma-ray bursts are short-lived events, lasting between a few milliseconds to a few minutes. The brightest of them emit more energy in a few seconds than our Sun will emit in its whole 10 billion year lifetime. Gamma ray bursts are occurring several times daily somewhere in the universe, fortunately at huge distances from our solar system. These fleeting explosions are precursors to the births of black holes.

The Swift Gamma Ray Burst Explorer satellite is a NASA mission with substantial UK and Italian participation. Swift was designed to solve the mystery of the origin of gamma ray bursts by pinpointing the burst and measuring the emissions from the huge fireball that occurs in the first few seconds of the burst's lifetime.

Scientists at Leicester's Space Research Centre are part of the international team working on the Swift, having had a major role in the development of the X-ray telescope, which has been responsible for many of the discoveries made by Swift.

Since its launch in 2004, Swift has discovered over 292 gamma-ray bursts, and pin-pointed a further 320 bursts detected by other satellites. Swift's rapid response - it was named after the bird, which catches its prey "on the fly" - has been critical to understanding these titanic events.

Record-Breaking X-Ray Blast Briefly Blinds Space Observatory

The blindingly bright blast came from a gamma-ray burst, a violent eruption of energy from the explosion of a massive star morphing into a new black hole. "This gamma-ray burst is by far the brightest light source ever seen in X-ray wavelengths at cosmological distances," said David Burrows, senior scientist and professor of astronomy and astrophysics at Penn State University and the lead scientist for Swift's X-ray Telescope (XRT).

Although the Swift satellite was designed specifically to study gamma-ray bursts, the instrument was not designed to handle an X-ray blast this bright. "The intensity of these X-rays was unexpected and unprecedented" said Neil Gehrels, Swift's principal investigator at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. He said the burst, named GRB 100621A, is the brightest X-ray source that Swift has detected since the observatory began X-ray observation in early 2005. "Just when we were beginning to think that we had seen everything that gamma-ray bursts could throw at us, this burst came along to challenge our assumptions about how powerful their X-ray emissions can be," Gehrels said.

"The burst was so bright when it first erupted that our data-analysis software shut down," said Phil Evans, a postdoctoral research assistant at the University of Leicester in the United Kingdom who wrote parts of Swift's X-ray-analysis software. "So many photons were bombarding the detector each second that it just couldn't count them quickly enough. It was like trying to use a rain gauge and a bucket to measure the flow rate of a tsunami."

The software soon resumed capturing the evolution of the burst over time, and Evans recovered the data that Swift had detected during the software's brief shutdown. The scientists then were able to measure the blast's X-ray brightness at 143,000 X-ray photons per second during its fleeting period of greatest brightness, which is more that 140 times brighter than the brightest continuous X-ray source in the sky -- a neutron star that is more than 500,000 times closer to Earth than the gamma-ray burst, and that sends a 'mere' 10,000 photons per second streaming toward Swift's telescopes.

Gamma-ray bursts typically begin with a bright flash of high-energy gamma-rays and X-rays, then fade away like a fireworks display, sometimes leaving behind a disappearing afterglow in less-energetic wavelengths, including optical and ultraviolet. Surprisingly, although the energy from this burst was the brightest ever in X-rays, it was merely ordinary in optical and ultraviolet wavelengths.

The Swift scientists were able to estimate the overall brightness of GRB 100621A by sampling the photons at some distance from its overexposed center -- a standard correction technique. Scientists who study the Sun use a similar approach to observe the Sun's corona by blocking out its much-brighter center. "With this burst, we had to sample the photons twice as far from the center as we ever had to go before," Burrows said. "The correction factor for the X-rays from GRB 100621A was 168 times larger than for a typical gamma-ray burst and 5 times larger than for the brightest burst we previously had seen. We never thought we'd see anything this bright."

Automated analysis of the Swift XRT data is performed at the University of Leicester in the United Kingdom, which has been studying X-rays from outer space for the past half century. Evans was the first to see the processed data from the burst's initial blast. "When I first saw the strange data from this burst, I knew that I had discovered something extraordinary," he said. "It was an indescribable feeling when I realized, at that moment, that I was the only person in the whole universe who knew that this extraordinary event had occurred. Now, after our analysis of the data, we know that this burst is one for the record books."

Other members of the research team include Tilan Ukwatta at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and Valerio D'Elia and Giulia Stratta at the ASI Science Data Center in Italy.

Could Our Minds Be Tricked Into Satisfying Our Stomachs?

Test subjects were more satisfied for longer periods of time after consuming varying quantities of food for which they were led to believe that portion sizes were larger than they actually were.

Memories about how satisfying previous meals were also played a causal role in determining how long those meals staved off hunger. Together, these results suggest that expectations before eating and memory after eating play an important role in governing appetite and satiety.

In the first experiment, participants were shown the ingredients of a fruit smoothie. Half were shown a small portion of fruit and half were shown a large portion. They were then asked to assess the 'expected satiety' of the smoothie and to provide ratings before and three hours after consumption. Participants who were shown the large portion of fruit reported significantly greater fullness, even though all participants consumed the same smaller quantity of fruit.

In a second experiment, researchers manipulated the 'actual' and 'perceived' amount of soup that people thought that they had consumed. Using a soup bowl connected to a hidden pump beneath the bowl, the amount of soup in the bowl was increased or decreased as participants ate, without their knowledge. Three hours after the meal, it was the perceived (remembered) amount of soup in the bowl and not the actual amount of soup consumed that predicted post-meal hunger and fullness ratings.

The findings could have implications for more effective food labeling.

"The extent to which a food that can alleviate hunger is not determined solely by its physical size, energy content, and so on. Instead, it is influenced by prior experience with a food, which affects our beliefs and expectations about satiation. This has an immediate effect on the portion sizes that we select and an effect on the hunger that we experience after eating," said Dr. Brunstrom.

"Labels on 'light' and 'diet' foods might lead us to think we will not be satisfied by such foods, possibly leading us to eat more afterwards," added Dr. Brunstrom. "One way to militate against this, and indeed accentuate potential satiety effects, might be to emphasize the satiating properties of a food using labels such as 'satisfying' or 'hunger relieving'."

The research was funded by the Biotechnology & Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) and a consortium of food companies under a joint initiative with the Diet and Health Research Industry Club (DRINC).

The lead author was Jeff Brunstrom of the University of Bristol UK.

Co-authors were P Rogers, J Burn, Jm Collingwood, O Maynard, S Brown, N Sel also of the University of Bristol UK.

Early Stages Of Crater Birth

The resulting craters form in 100 milliseconds or less. By using high-speed video cameras that can capture up to 15,000 frames per second, the team could track individual sand particles as they were ejected from the impact.

Most of the material thrown up by the impact took to the air during the impact's "main stage", landing within a few crater radii of where the projectile hit. But the high-speed video also revealed particles kicked up in a relatively unstudied early stage.

During this phase of crater formation material is flung fastest and farthest, for example creating the long rays of the moon's Tycho crater and, potentially, launching a number of meteoroids into space from the surface of the moon and Mars.

The new experiments show the material released during this early stage is ejected faster and at a lower angle than the main stage.

Crater makers

Learning more about how such debris is ejected could help researchers to piece together the trajectory, speed and other properties of the bodies – such as comets, meteoroids and asteroids – that have made craters on the moon and other bodies, Hermalyn says.

This is the first time particle tracking has been used to measure the speeds and angles of particles thrown out in the early stage of impact, says Jay Melosh of Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana.

The speeds of impacts in the experiment are much lower than the average for bodies like the moon and so can't reproduce effects such as melting and vaporisation that more energetic impacts cause, says Melosh. But he says the experiment could be an important check for computer models of impacts.

Solar Plane Stays Aloft For 26 hours

PARIS — Slender as a stick insect, a solar-powered experimental airplane with a huge wing span completed its first test flight of more than 24 hours on Thursday, powered overnight by energy collected from the sun during a day aloft over Switzerland.

The organizers said the flight was the longest and highest by a piloted solar-powered craft, reaching an altitude of just over 28,000 feet above sea level at an average speed of 23 knots, around 26 miles per hour.

The plane — Solar Impulse — landed where it had taken off 26 hours and 9 minutes earlier at Payerne, 30 miles southwest of the capital, Bern, after gliding and looping over the Jura Mountains, its 12,000 solar cells absorbing energy to keep its batteries charged when the sun went down.

The pilot, André Borschberg, 57, a former Swiss air force fighter pilot, flew the plane from a cramped, single-seat cockpit, buffeted by low-level turbulence after takeoff and chilled by low temperatures overnight.

“I’ve been a pilot for 40 years now, but this flight has been the most incredible one of my flying career,” Mr. Borschberg said as he landed, according to a statement from the organizers of the project. “Just sitting there and watching the battery charge level rise and rise thanks to the sun. I have just flown more than 26 hours without using a drop of fuel and without causing any pollution.”

The project’s co-founder, Dr. Bertrand Piccard, who himself achieved fame by completing the first nonstop,round the world flightby hot air ballon in 1999, embraced the pilot after he landed the plane to the cheers of hundreds of supporters.

“When you took off it was another era,” The Associated Press quoted Dr. Piccard as saying. “You land in a new era where people understand that with renewable energy you can do impossible things.”

The project’s designers had set out to prove that, theoretically at least, the plane with its airliner-size, 208-foot wingspan could stay aloft indefinitely, recharging batteries during the day and using the stored power overnight. “We are on the verge of the perpetual flight,” Dr. Piccard said.

The project’s founders say their ambition is for one of their craft to fly around the world using solar power. The propeller-driven Solar Impulse, made of carbon fiber, is powered by four small electric motors and weighs around 3,500 pounds. During its 26-hour flight, the plane reached a maximum speed of 68 knots, or 78 miles per hour, the organizers said.

The seven-year-old project is not intended to replace jet transportation — or its comforts.

Just 17 hours after takeoff, a blog on the project's website reported, “André says he’s feeling great up there.”

It continued: “His only complaints involve little things like a slightly sore back as well as a 10-hour period during which it was minus 20 degrees Celsius in the cockpit.

“That made his drinking water system freeze up and worse of all his iPod batteries die.”

How Flying Cars Will Work?

Sitting amidst a sea of cars in bumper-to-bumper traffic on an endless expresswa y, have you ever daydreamed about your car taking off and flying over the road? Imagine if you could just flip a switch and unshackle yourself from the asphalt!

Traffic jams are the bane of any commuter. Many of us spend an hour or so stuck in traffic every week. The growing population is partly to blame for our congested roads, but the main problem is that we are not expanding our transportation systems fast enough to meet ever increasing demands. One solution is to create a new type of transportation that doesn't rely on roads, which could one day make traffic jams a 20th century relic. To do this, we must look to the sky.In the last century, airplanes and mass- produced cars have changed the way we live. Cars, which became affordable for the general population, have allowed us to move farther away from cities, and planes have cut travel time to faraway destinations considerably. At the beginning of a new century, we may see the realization of a century-old dream -- the merging of cars and planes into roadable aircraft, or flying cars. You've probably heard promises about flying cars before, and the technology to make them safe and easy to fly may finally be here.

In this article, we will take a look back at some of the attempts to build a flying car, and examine some of the flying vehicles that you may be able to park in your garage in the next decade!

History Of Flying Cars

Just a decade and a half after the Wright Brothers took off in their airplane over the plains of Kitty Hawk, N.C., in 1903, other pioneering men began chasing the dream of a flying car. There was even one attempt in the 18th century to develop a gliding horse cart, which, to no great surprise, failed. There are nearly 80 patents on file at the United States Patent And Trade Mark Office for various kinds of flying cars. Some of these have actually flown. Most have not. And all have come up short of reaching the goal of the mass-produced flying car. Here's a look back at a few of the flying cars that distinguished themselves from the pack:

• Curtiss Autoplane - In 1917, Glenn Curtiss, who could be called the father of the flying car, unveiled the first attempt at such a vehicle. His aluminum Autoplane sported three wings that spanned 40 feet (12.2 meters). The car's motor drove a four-bladed propeller at the rear of the car. The Autoplane never truly flew, but it did manage a few short hops.
• Arrowbile - Developed by Waldo Waterman in 1937, the Arrowbile was a hybrid Studebaker-aircraft. Like the Autoplane, it too had a propeller attached to the rear of the vehicle. The three-wheeled car was powered by a typical 100-horsepower Studebaker engine. The wings detached for storage. A lack of funding killed the project.
• Airphibian - Robert Fulton, who was a distant relative of the steam engine inventor, developed the Airphibian in 1946. Instead of adapting a car for flying, Fulton adapted a plane for the road. The wings and tail section of the plane could be removed to accommodate road travel, and the propeller could be stored inside the plane's fuselage. It took only five minutes to convert the plane into a car. The Airphibian was the first flying car to be certified by the Civil Aeronautics Administration, the predecessor of the the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). It had a 150-horsepower, six-cylinder engine and could fly 120 miles per hour and drive at 50 mph. Despite his success, Fulton couldn't find a reliable financial backer for the Airphibian.
• ConvAirCar - In the 1940s, Consolidated-Vultee developed a two-door sedan equipped with a detachable airplane unit. The ConvAirCar debuted in 1947, and offered one hour of flight and a gas mileage of 45 miles (72 kilometers) per gallon. Plans to market the car ended when it crashed on its third flight.
• Avrocar - The first flying car designed for military use was the Avrocar, developed in a joint effort between Canadian and British military. The flying-saucer-like vehicle was supposed to be a lightweight air carrier that would move troops to the battlefield.
• Aerocar - Inspired by the Airphibian and Robert Fulton, whom he had met years before, Moulton "Molt" Taylor created perhaps the most well-known and most successful flying car to date. The Aerocar was designed to drive, fly and then drive again without interruption. Taylor covered his car with a fiberglass shell. A 10-foot-long (3-meter) drive shaft connected the engine to a pusher propeller. It cruised at 120 mph (193 kph) in the air and was the second and last roadable aircraft to receive FAA approval. In 1970, Ford Motor Co. even considered marketing the vehicle, but the decade's oil crisis dashed those plans

These pioneers never managed to develop a viable flying car, and some even died testing their inventions. However, they proved that a car could be built to fly, and inspired a new group of roadable aircraft enthusiasts. With advances in lightweight material, computer modeling and computer-controlled aircraft, the dream is very close to becoming reality. In the next section, we will look at the flying cars being developed today that eventually could be in our garages.